This may be the case for vector-borne pathogens that require the coexistence of competent vertebrate hosts and insect vectors to be effectively transmitted from an infected individual to a susceptible host. However, locally circulating pathogens may also be able to infect alien hosts, although the transmission of pathogens with complex life cycles may be limited by the occurrence of competent hosts allowing its successful transmission. In addition to this possibility, the Novel Weapons Hypothesis proposes that invasive species may harbor new pathogens to the immunological naive native populations. The Enemy Release Hypothesis proposes that invasive species proliferate in invaded areas because they lose their original parasites present in their native distribution range. Pathogens are an important factor explaining the invasion success of alien species. These results suggest that Plasmodium circulating in the area cannot develop in the invasive Monk parakeet, in spite of the relatively high fraction of native mosquito vectors feeding on this species in its invaded distribution range. Three Plasmodium lineages were detected in pools of Cx pipiens. albopictus showed a clear anthropophilic feeding pattern, with humans dominating its diet. Monk parakeets were bitten by Culiseta longiareolata and represented 9.5% of Culex pipiens blood meals. Monk parakeets were neither infected by Plasmodium nor by Haemoproteus parasites, and only five individuals (3.13% n = 160) were infected by Leucocytozoon. Thus, we also sampled mosquitoes in the area to trace their blood-feeding hosts and determine the presence of Plasmodium parasites. Many areas of southern Europe shelter high densities of the invasive Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus, which in addition to native mosquito species could affect the transmission of mosquito-borne parasites, such as avian Plasmodium. To test this hypothesis, we determined the prevalence and diversity of three vector-borne parasites, namely Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon, in Monk parakeets from Barcelona. Due to their high abundance in urban areas, Monk parakeets could be involved in the transmission of pathogens, potentially affecting wildlife and livestock. The exotic Monk parakeet ( Myiopsitta monachus) has established populations in Europe and is currently considered an invasive pest. Alien mosquito and vertebrate host species may create novel epidemiological scenarios for the transmission of pathogens naturally circulating in the invaded area.
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